# Dutch Fluency Grammar

188 short Dutch grammar rules from A1 to C1, written for learners. Each rule starts
with the answer, then gives examples, common mistakes, a quick check and a task for today.
Free to share and adapt under CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Credit: Dutch Fluency, https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar.

## Start here

How to learn Dutch grammar so it sticks, and the words you need to talk about it.

- [How to learn Dutch grammar so it sticks](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/how-to-learn-grammar.md) (A1): Make Dutch grammar stick: learn one rule at a time, test yourself from memory in short spaced sessions, and start with useful chunks like ik wil graag.
- [Grammar words you need, in English and Dutch](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/grammar-terms.md) (A1): The Dutch names for grammar terms like subject, verb, noun, stem and subordinate clause, with their de or het, so NT2 classes and textbooks make sense.
- [Dutch for English speakers: what is easy and what is hard](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/dutch-for-english-speakers.md) (A1): Many Dutch words look familiar to English speakers; the hard parts are word order, choosing de or het, and sounds like g, ui and eu.
- [False friends between Dutch and English](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/false-friends.md) (A2): Dutch false friends like slim, eventueel, actueel, brutaal and kind look English but mean something else. Learn them in pairs with example sentences.

## Sounds and spelling

How Dutch sounds, and the few rules that explain almost all of its spelling.

- [The Dutch alphabet and how to spell your name](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/alphabet.md) (A1): Dutch uses the same 26 letters as English, but many letter names differ: learn them so you can spell your name clearly, even on the phone.
- [Short and long vowels](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/short-long-vowels.md) (A1): Dutch vowels come in short and long pairs (a/aa, e/ee, i/ie, o/oo, u/uu), and swapping them changes meaning: man is a man, maan is the moon.
- [Why maan becomes manen: open and closed syllables](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/open-closed-syllables.md) (A1): Dutch writes a long vowel with one letter in an open syllable (ma-nen) and two in a closed one (maan), which explains plurals, verbs and adjectives.
- [Doubling consonants after a short vowel](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/double-consonants.md) (A1): When a stressed short vowel stays short before an ending like -en, Dutch doubles the consonant: bal, ballen; zit, zitten. Ch and ng never double.
- [ui, eu, ij, ei, ou, au, oe, ie](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/vowel-combinations.md) (A1): Dutch ij and ei sound the same, as do ou and au; oe is the oo in food, ie the ee in see, and eu and ui need rounded lips.
- [The Dutch g and ch](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/g-and-ch.md) (A1): Dutch g and ch are the same rasping sound in the north and softer in the south; sch is s plus that sound and -isch sounds like ies.
- [Why d sounds like t at the end of a word](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/final-devoicing.md) (A1): At the end of a Dutch word, d sounds like t and b like p, but you still write hond and web because the plural honden brings the d back.
- [v and f, z and s: huis and huizen](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/v-f-z-s.md) (A2): Many Dutch words ending in f or s switch to v or z before an ending like -en or -e, so huis becomes huizen and brief becomes brieven.
- [The neutral e and the endings -en, -ig and -lijk](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/schwa-and-endings.md) (A1): An unstressed Dutch e usually sounds like uh, many speakers drop the n of -en, -ig sounds like uch and -lijk like luk, but the spelling never changes.
- [The Dutch r](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/the-dutch-r.md) (A2): Dutch accepts a rolled r, a throaty r and a soft r at the end of a syllable; all are understood, so pick one and use it consistently.
- [Word stress](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/word-stress.md) (A2): Most Dutch words stress the root's first syllable, not be-, ge-, ont- or ver-; separable prefixes, many French loanwords and some endings take the stress.
- [The trema in ë and ï, and the hyphen](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/trema-and-hyphen.md) (A2): The trema in ë and ï shows that a new syllable starts, so two vowels do not melt together; in compounds like zee-egel a hyphen does this job.
- [Capital letters](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/capital-letters.md) (A1): Dutch capitalises names, languages and nationalities but not days, months or the polite u, and a capital ij is written IJ.
- [When Dutch uses an apostrophe](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/apostrophe.md) (A2): Dutch uses an apostrophe in plurals like auto's and tv's, with names like Anna's, and in time words like 's avonds, but not in Peters fiets.
- [How sounds blend in fast speech](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/sound-blending.md) (B1): In fast Dutch, sounds blend: zakdoek gets the g of English go, and heb je sounds like heppie. Learn to hear blends; the spelling stays the same.
- [Writing compound words](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/compound-spelling.md) (B1): Dutch writes compounds as one word, sometimes with a linking -s- or -en-, and uses a hyphen mainly for clashing vowels, place names and abbreviations.

## Nouns and de or het

Articles, plurals, diminutives, and a calm way to deal with de and het.

- [De or het: the two words for "the"](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/de-and-het.md) (A1): Dutch has two words for "the": de for most nouns, het for neuter nouns, and de for every plural. Learn each noun together with its article.
- [Een: the word for "a"](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/een.md) (A1): Dutch uses een for "a" or "an" before every singular countable noun, de or het. It sounds like "un", has no plural, and één marks the number one.
- [When Dutch uses no article](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/no-article.md) (A2): Dutch usually drops the article before jobs and nationalities after zijn, for plural or uncountable things in general, and in phrases like naar huis.
- [Plurals with -en](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/plural-en.md) (A1): Most Dutch nouns form the plural with -en, with small spelling changes as in bomen, katten and huizen, and the stress normally stays put.
- [Plurals with -s](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/plural-s.md) (A1): Dutch nouns ending in unstressed -el, -em, -en or -er, diminutives and many loanwords take -s. After a single final a, i, o or u, write 's.
- [Irregular plurals](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/irregular-plurals.md) (A2): A few common Dutch nouns have irregular plurals, like stad and steden, kind and kinderen, koe and koeien, so learn them as singular and plural pairs.
- [Diminutives: -je, -tje, -pje, -etje, -kje](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/diminutives.md) (A2): Dutch diminutives add -je, -tje, -pje, -etje or -kje depending on the last sound, take het in the singular, and form the plural with -s.
- [What diminutives really mean](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/diminutive-meaning.md) (B1): Dutch diminutives such as een biertje or een momentje often sound friendly, casual or modest rather than small, and they soften requests.
- [Clues that a noun is a het-word](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/het-word-patterns.md) (A2): Singular diminutives and verbs used as nouns are het-words; ge-, be-, ver-, ont-, -isme, -ment, -um, languages and metals often are.
- [Clues that a noun is a de-word](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/de-word-patterns.md) (A2): Most words for people, all plurals, nouns with the suffixes -ing, -heid, -teit or -tie, and most trees, fruits and rivers take de: guess de when unsure.
- [Compound nouns take the article of the last part](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/compound-gender.md) (A2): In a Dutch compound noun, the last part almost always decides de or het: het huis + de deur gives de huisdeur, de fiets + het pad gives het fietspad.
- [How to actually learn de and het](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/learning-de-het.md) (A2): Learn de and het by always learning the article with the noun, then use colours, spaced flashcards, patterns, reading and listening.
- [Countable and uncountable nouns](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/uncountable-nouns.md) (A2): Uncountable Dutch nouns like geld take no een and no plural; you count them with a measure word and no van: een glas water, een stuk kaas.
- [Showing possession: van, -s and zijn/haar](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/possession.md) (A2): Say whose something is in Dutch with van (het boek van Sara), with -s on names (Peters fiets, Anna's fiets) or in speech with z'n and d'r.
- [Making nouns from verbs and adjectives](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/nouns-from-verbs.md) (B1): Make Dutch nouns from verbs and adjectives: the infinitive takes het (het lezen); -ing, -heid, -te and -er take de (de opleiding, de bakker).
- [Male and female forms: leraar and lerares](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/male-female-forms.md) (B1): Dutch makes female nouns with -es, -in, -ster or -e (lerares, vriendin); many now use one job title for everyone, and both forms take de.
- [Group nouns and verb agreement](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/collective-nouns.md) (B1): Dutch group nouns like de politie, het team and het publiek take a singular verb, while mensen is plural: de politie is, de mensen zijn.
- [Nouns with two plurals or only a plural](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/two-plurals.md) (B1): Some Dutch nouns have two plurals that usually differ in meaning (bladen, bladeren), and some, like de kosten and de hersenen, are normally plural.

## Pronouns

Ik, jij, hem, ons, die and dat: the small words that do the most work.

- [Subject pronouns: ik, jij, hij, zij](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/subject-pronouns.md) (A1): Dutch subject pronouns are ik, jij/je, u, hij, zij/ze, het, wij/we, jullie and zij/ze, and the verb shows whether zij means she or they.
- [Jij or je? Stressed and unstressed pronouns](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/stressed-unstressed.md) (A1): Dutch has short and long pronouns like je and jij: use the short form by default and the long, stressed form mainly for contrast or emphasis.
- [U or jij: formal and informal you](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/u-or-jij.md) (A1): U is the formal you in Dutch, for strangers, older people and officials, while jij is informal; u takes the jij verb form: u bent, u hebt or u heeft.
- [Object pronouns: me, je, hem, haar](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/object-pronouns.md) (A1): Dutch uses mij, jou, hem, haar and ons for the person receiving the action and after prepositions, and hem also means it for most de-words.
- [Hen, hun or ze: them](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/hen-hun-ze.md) (B1): Standard Dutch uses hen for "them" as direct object or after a preposition, hun as indirect object; speech uses ze, and hun as subject is not standard.
- [Hij, het or zij for things](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/it-for-things.md) (A2): In Dutch, "it" for a thing follows the article: het-words get het, de-words usually get hij in the Netherlands, and die is common at the start.
- [Possessive pronouns: mijn, jouw, zijn, haar](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/possessive-pronouns.md) (A1): Dutch possessive pronouns: mijn, jouw/je, uw, zijn, haar, ons/onze, jullie/je and hun, with the everyday short forms and when to use each one.
- [Ons or onze?](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/ons-or-onze.md) (A2): Use ons before a singular het-word (ons huis) and onze before de-words and all plurals (onze auto, onze huizen), the same split as het and de.
- [Mine and yours: van mij and de mijne](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/mine-and-yours.md) (B1): Dutch says van mij for mine (Die fiets is van mij); to replace a noun, use die van mij or de mijne/het mijne, matching the noun's article.
- [Reflexive pronouns: me, je, zich](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/reflexive-pronouns.md) (A2): Dutch reflexive pronouns are me, je, zich, ons, je, zich: zich goes with hij, zij and they, and -zelf adds emphasis or is needed with some verbs.
- [Reflexive verbs: zich vergissen, zich voelen](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/reflexive-verbs.md) (A2): Reflexive verbs like zich vergissen and zich voelen need me, je or zich, usually right after the conjugated verb: Ik voel me goed, Ik heb me vergist.
- [Elkaar: each other](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/each-other.md) (B1): Elkaar means each other: use it when two or more people do something to one another, also after met, bij or naast. One form for everyone.
- [Deze, die, dit, dat](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/demonstratives.md) (A1): Use deze and die (this, that) with de-words and all plurals, and dit and dat (this, that) with het-words, as in deze fiets and dit huis.
- [Dit is, dat is, het is](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/dit-is-dat-is.md) (A2): Use dit is and dat is to introduce people and things, dit zijn for plurals, het is for situations, and dat is to react to an idea.
- [Die and dat instead of hij and het in speech](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/die-and-dat-in-speech.md) (B1): In spoken Dutch, die and dat often replace hij, zij and het at the start of a sentence: die for people and de-words, dat for het-words and ideas.
- [Relative pronouns: die and dat](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/relative-die-dat.md) (B1): Dutch uses die after de-words and plurals and dat after singular het-words to say who, which or that, with the verb at the end of the clause.
- [Wie, wat and waar- in relative clauses](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/relative-wie-wat-waar.md) (B2): After a preposition Dutch uses wie for people and waar- for things; wat follows alles, iets and het enige and refers back to whole sentences.
- [Waarmee, waarover, waaraan](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/waar-plus-preposition.md) (B2): Dutch usually asks about things with waarmee, waarover or waaraan, often split (Waar denk je aan?), and about people with a preposition plus wie.
- [Iemand, niemand, iets, niets, alles, iedereen](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/someone-nothing-everyone.md) (A2): Learn iemand, niemand, iets, niets (niks), alles and iedereen in Dutch, why iedereen takes a singular verb, and why you say iets leuks with an -s.
- [Men, je and ze: people in general](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/people-in-general.md) (B1): In Dutch, use je for people in general, men in formal writing, and ze for an unnamed they, like the gemeente or the people in charge.
- [Het as an empty subject: het regent](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/dummy-het.md) (A2): Dutch uses het as an empty subject for weather, time, fixed phrases like het spijt me, and statements like het is belangrijk dat.
- [Question words: wie, wat, waar, wanneer, hoe, waarom](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/question-words.md) (A1): Dutch question words like wie, wat, waar, wanneer, hoe, waarom, hoeveel and welk go first, and the verb comes right after: Waar woon je?
- [Welk or welke, and wat voor](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/welk-or-welke.md) (A2): Use welk before a singular het-word, welke before de-words and all plurals, and wat voor (een) to ask what kind of thing something is.
- [Zo'n, zulk and zulke: such](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/zon-zulk-zulke.md) (B2): Use zo'n before one countable noun, zulk before an uncountable het-word, and zulke before plurals and uncountable de-words to say such in Dutch.

## Verbs now

The present tense, modal verbs, separable verbs and the imperative.

- [Finding the stem of a verb](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/verb-stem.md) (A1): To find a Dutch verb stem, drop -en from the infinitive and fix the spelling: werken becomes werk, lopen loop, zitten zit, leven leef.
- [The present tense: ik werk, jij werkt, wij werken](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/present-tense.md) (A1): Dutch present tense: ik uses the stem (ik werk), jij, u, hij and zij add t (werkt), and wij, jullie and zij use the infinitive (werken).
- [Werk jij? Where the t disappears](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/jij-inversion.md) (A1): Jij werkt, but werk jij? When jij or je (you) comes right after the verb, the verb drops its -t. With hij and u the t stays: werkt hij? werkt u?
- [Zijn and hebben in the present](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/zijn-and-hebben.md) (A1): Zijn and hebben in the present: ik ben, jij bent, hij is; ik heb, jij hebt, hij heeft. When jij follows the verb, the t drops: ben jij, heb jij.
- [Gaan, doen, komen, willen, kunnen, zullen and mogen](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/irregular-present.md) (A1): Dutch present forms of gaan, doen, komen, willen, kunnen, zullen and mogen: ik ga, jij gaat, ik kom, and no t in hij wil, hij kan, hij zal, hij mag.
- [D, t or dt: spelling verbs in the present](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/d-t-or-dt.md) (A2): A verb stem ending in d still gets the t for jij, u and hij (hij wordt), loses it when jij comes after the verb (word jij?), and lopen helps you check.
- [Modal verbs: kunnen, moeten, willen, mogen, zullen](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/modal-verbs.md) (A1): In a statement, kunnen (can), moeten (must), willen (want), mogen (may) or zullen (shall) comes second; the other verb goes to the end, without te.
- [Niet hoeven te: you don't have to](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/hoeven.md) (A2): To say you don't have to in Dutch, use niet hoeven te: Je hoeft niet te komen. Je moet niet komen means you must not come.
- [Kunnen, mogen and durven](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/kunnen-mogen-durven.md) (A2): Kunnen means can or be able to, mogen means be allowed to (and to like a person), and durven means to dare, with or without te.
- [Separable verbs: opbellen, meenemen](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/separable-verbs.md) (A1): Separable verbs like opbellen split: the prefix moves to the end (Ik bel je morgen op) but stays attached after wil or kan (Ik wil je opbellen).
- [Inseparable verbs: be-, ver-, ont-, her-, ge-, er-](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/inseparable-verbs.md) (A2): Verbs with the unstressed prefixes be-, ver-, ont-, ge- and er-, and common her- verbs, never split and take no extra ge-: betaald, verteld.
- [One verb, two meanings: when stress decides](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/stress-decides.md) (B1): Dutch verbs like voorkomen, ondergaan and overkomen have two meanings: stress on the prefix makes them separable, stress on the verb keeps them whole.
- [The imperative: Kom binnen!](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/imperative.md) (A1): Give commands in Dutch with the verb stem (Kom binnen!), add u to be polite, soften with even or maar, and read signs that use the infinitive.
- [Aan het + infinitive: I am doing it right now](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/progressive.md) (A2): Say what you are doing right now with zijn + aan het + infinitive (Ik ben aan het koken) or zitten, staan, liggen or lopen + te (Ik zit te lezen).

## Verbs in time

Past, future, would, the passive and verb clusters.

- [The perfect tense: ik heb gewerkt](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/perfect-tense.md) (A1): Dutch talks about the past with hebben in position two and a past participle at the end: Ik heb gisteren gewerkt means I worked yesterday.
- [Regular past participles: ge- plus stem plus t or d](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/regular-participles.md) (A1): Regular Dutch past participles are ge- plus the stem plus t or d, like gewerkt and gewoond; 't kofschip decides t or d, and the participle goes last.
- ['t kofschip: choosing t or d](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/t-kofschip.md) (A1): Regular Dutch verbs with a stem ending in t, k, f, s, ch, p or x take -t and -te (gewerkt, werkte); others take -d and -de, and so do leven and reizen.
- [Irregular past participles](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/irregular-participles.md) (A2): Irregular Dutch past participles: most end in -en, often with a new vowel (gedronken), some in -cht (gekocht), plus geweest, gehad, gegaan, gedaan.
- [Hebben or zijn in the perfect tense](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/hebben-or-zijn.md) (A2): Most Dutch verbs form the perfect with hebben; use zijn for a change of place or state, for zijn and blijven, and for movement to a destination.
- [Participles without ge-](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/participles-without-ge.md) (A2): Dutch verbs with an unstressed prefix like be- or ver- get no ge- (betaald, vergeten); separable verbs put ge- in the middle (opgebeld).
- [The simple past of regular verbs: -te and -de](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/simple-past-regular.md) (A2): Form the Dutch simple past of regular verbs with the stem plus -te or -de (plural -ten or -den), and use 't kofschip to choose between t and d.
- [The simple past of irregular verbs](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/simple-past-irregular.md) (A2): Most irregular Dutch verbs make the simple past with a new vowel: no ending in the singular (ik liep), -en in the plural (wij liepen).
- [Patterns in irregular verbs](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/strong-verb-patterns.md) (B1): Dutch irregular verbs change their vowels in families like schrijven, schreef, geschreven, so you can learn them by pattern instead of one by one.
- [Perfect or simple past: which one when](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/perfect-or-simple-past.md) (B1): Use the Dutch perfect for single past events and news, and the simple past for telling stories, describing past situations and habits with vroeger.
- [The past perfect: ik had gegeten](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/past-perfect.md) (B1): Use had or was plus a past participle for something that happened before another past moment: Toen ik aankwam, was de trein al vertrokken.
- [Talking about the future with gaan](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/future-gaan.md) (A1): In Dutch you talk about the future with gaan plus an infinitive (Ik ga verhuizen) or simply the present tense plus a time word (Morgen werk ik thuis).
- [Zullen: promises, suggestions and assumptions](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/zullen.md) (B1): Use zullen to promise (Ik zal het sturen), suggest (Zullen we?), guess with wel (Dat zal wel kloppen) and for the formal future.
- [Zou and zouden: would](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/zou-would.md) (B1): Zou and zouden mean "would": Dutch uses them for polite requests, imagined situations, advice, and news claims that nobody has confirmed.
- [Infinitives with te](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/infinitive-with-te.md) (B1): Dutch puts te before an infinitive after verbs like proberen, vergeten and hoeven, and after zitten or staan, but never after modals like kunnen.
- [Om te: in order to](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/om-te.md) (B1): Dutch uses om ... te plus an infinitive to say why you do something and after words like leuk and tijd: om first, te plus the verb usually last.
- [Laten: let, and having something done](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/laten.md) (B1): Dutch laten means let or allow, have something done (Ik laat mijn fiets repareren), let's (laten we) and never mind (laat maar).
- [Worden: become, and the passive](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/worden.md) (B1): Worden means become: Ik word moe. Learn word, wordt, werd and is geworden, worden versus zijn, and how worden helps form the passive.
- [The passive with worden](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/passive.md) (B1): Dutch makes the passive with worden plus a past participle: Het huis wordt verkocht. Add door to name the doer, and werd or werden for the past.
- [The passive in the perfect: is gebouwd](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/passive-perfect.md) (B2): The Dutch perfect passive is zijn plus a participle, without geworden (het huis is gebouwd), and the past perfect uses was: het huis was gebouwd.
- [Er wordt gedanst: the passive without a subject](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/impersonal-passive.md) (B2): Dutch uses er + worden + a participle (Er wordt gedanst) to describe an activity without saying who does it, also with modals: Er moet betaald worden.
- [Verbs with a fixed preposition](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/verbs-with-prepositions.md) (B1): Many Dutch verbs have a fixed preposition (wachten op, denken aan, houden van) that often differs from English: learn each pair as one chunk.
- [Verb clusters: heb kunnen komen](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/verb-clusters.md) (B2): Dutch says ik heb niet kunnen komen, not gekund: in the perfect, modals and verbs like laten and blijven become infinitives, with heb or ben first.
- [Zien, horen, voelen plus an infinitive](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/perception-verbs.md) (B2): Zien, horen and voelen take a plain infinitive without te (Ik zie hem lopen), and in the perfect they become infinitives too: Ik heb hem zien lopen.
- [The present participle: lachend, slapend](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/present-participle.md) (B2): The Dutch present participle is the infinitive plus -d (lachend, slapend), used as an adjective or for something happening at the same time.
- [Past participles as adjectives](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/participle-as-adjective.md) (B1): A Dutch past participle can describe a noun like an adjective, with the usual -e endings (de gesloten deur, een gekookt ei), or a state after zijn.
- [Must have, should have, could have](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/modal-perfect.md) (C1): Dutch says must have with moet ... gemist hebben, should have with had ... moeten zeggen and could have with had ... kunnen or zou kunnen.
- [Old verb forms in fixed phrases: Leve de koning!](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/fixed-subjunctive.md) (C1): Old subjunctive forms like Leve de koning, Het ga je goed and zij het survive mainly in fixed phrases: recognise them, no need to produce them.

## Word order

Where the verb goes, and every other piece of the sentence.

- [Verb second: the golden rule](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/verb-second.md) (A1): In a Dutch statement the conjugated verb comes second: one element (subject, time, place or object), then the verb, however long that first element is.
- [Inversion: Morgen ga ik](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/inversion.md) (A1): If a Dutch sentence starts with something other than the subject, like a time word, the verb stays second and the subject follows: Morgen ga ik.
- [Yes or no questions: the verb comes first](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/yes-no-questions.md) (A1): Dutch yes or no questions usually start with the conjugated verb: Woont hij hier? With jij after it, the verb drops the -t ending: Werk jij?
- [Questions with a question word](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/wh-questions.md) (A1): A Dutch question word comes first, then the verb, then the subject (Waar woon je?), and waar often splits from its preposition (Waar wacht je op?).
- [The verb bracket: two verbs, two places](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/verb-bracket.md) (A1): In a Dutch main clause the conjugated verb sits in position two and the infinitive, participle or separable prefix goes to the end.
- [Time, manner, place](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/time-manner-place.md) (A2): In the middle of a Dutch sentence, time usually comes first, then manner, then place: Ik ga morgen met de trein naar Utrecht.
- [Where does niet go?](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/niet-position.md) (A2): Niet usually follows the verb, known objects and time words, but goes before end verbs, adjectives and phrases like naar huis, or before the word you deny.
- [Geen or niet?](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/geen-or-niet.md) (A1): Use geen instead of een and before plurals or uncountable nouns without an article; use niet for verbs, adjectives, names and nouns with de, het or mijn.
- [En, maar, of, want, dus](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/coordinating-conjunctions.md) (A2): En, maar, of and want link two Dutch sentences without changing word order; dus can keep normal order or put the verb right after it.
- [Subordinate clauses: the verb goes to the end](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/subordinate-clauses.md) (A2): After dat, omdat, als, toen, terwijl, hoewel and of, the verbs move to the back of the clause and the subject usually comes right after the conjunction.
- [Omdat or want: two ways to say because](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/omdat-or-want.md) (A2): Want and omdat both mean because: after want the word order stays normal, after omdat the verb goes to the end, and only omdat can come first.
- [When the subordinate clause comes first](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/subclause-first.md) (B1): If a Dutch sentence opens with a clause like als or omdat, the main clause puts its verb before the subject: Als het regent, blijf ik thuis.
- [Als, wanneer or toen: when and if](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/als-wanneer-toen.md) (B1): Use toen for one moment or period in the past, als for if and for present, future or repeated events, and wanneer for formal when and questions.
- [Dat clauses: Ik denk dat...](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/dat-clauses.md) (A2): Use dat to report what you think, say or know (Ik denk dat het gaat regenen). Unlike English that, you can't drop it, and the verb goes last.
- [Indirect questions: Weet jij of...?](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/indirect-questions.md) (B1): Indirect questions in Dutch: use of for yes or no questions, keep the question word for the others, and put the verb at the end of the clause.
- [Relative clauses inside a sentence](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/relative-clause-order.md) (B1): A Dutch relative clause usually follows its noun and ends in its verb; if both open the sentence, the main verb comes next, often after a comma.
- [The order of verbs at the end](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/end-verb-order.md) (B2): In a Dutch subordinate clause the final verbs stay together: heb gezien and gezien heb both work, but with modals the conjugated verb usually comes first.
- [Separable verbs in subordinate clauses](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/separable-in-subclauses.md) (A2): In a Dutch subordinate clause, a separable verb joins up again at the end: dat hij opbelt, dat hij wil opbellen, dat hij heeft opgebeld.
- [Two objects and short pronouns](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/object-order.md) (B1): Dutch puts short pronouns like hem and het before time words and nouns, and the person before the thing, unless you use aan.
- [The four jobs of er](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/er-overview.md) (B1): Learn the four jobs of Dutch er: a place word, a stand-in after numbers, a dummy start for there is, and er plus a preposition for it.
- [Er is and er zijn: there is, there are](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/er-is-er-zijn.md) (A2): Say there is with er is (one thing or an amount) and there are with er zijn; for objects in a place, Dutch often uses er staat, ligt, zit or hangt.
- [Er with numbers: Ik heb er drie](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/er-with-numbers.md) (B1): Dutch adds er when you leave out the noun after a number or amount word: Hoeveel kinderen heb je? Ik heb er twee. Learn where it goes.
- [Erop, ervan, daarmee: er plus a preposition](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/er-plus-preposition.md) (B1): For things, a preposition plus it becomes er plus the preposition (erover, ermee); daar and hier mean that and this, and people keep hem or haar.
- [Splitting er and its preposition](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/split-er-preposition.md) (B2): Er, daar and waar stay near the front of a Dutch sentence while their preposition moves to the end, before the final verbs: Ik heb er niet aan gedacht.
- [Starting with the object for emphasis or contrast](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/fronting-for-emphasis.md) (B2): In Dutch you can put the object or another part first for focus or contrast; the verb stays second and the subject follows: Dat boek heb ik al gelezen.
- [Where adverbs go: al, nog, graag, vaak, ook](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/adverb-position.md) (B1): In Dutch, al, nog, graag, vaak and ook usually follow the conjugated verb and short pronouns like het and hem: Ik heb het al gedaan.
- [What can come after the final verbs](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/after-the-final-verb.md) (B2): Dutch lets dat clauses, om te clauses, comparisons and many prepositional phrases follow the final verbs, but objects and niet stay before them.
- [Questions with a preposition](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/preposition-questions.md) (B1): Ask Dutch questions with a preposition: waar plus preposition for things (Waar wacht je op?), preposition plus wie for people (Met wie ga je?).
- [Zowel ... als, niet alleen ... maar ook](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/paired-conjunctions.md) (B2): Zowel ... als means both ... and, niet alleen ... maar ook not only ... but also, óf ... óf either ... or, noch ... noch neither ... nor.
- [Daarom, toch, dan, daarna: linking words that invert](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/linking-adverbs.md) (B1): Daarom, toch, dan and daarna are adverbs: they take first place and the verb follows straight after (Daarom blijf ik thuis), unlike want.
- [Hoe meer, hoe beter](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/the-more-the-better.md) (B2): Say "the more, the better" in Dutch with hoe plus a comparative, verb at the end in both halves, or with des te and inversion in the second half.
- [Hoewel, ook al, zelfs als: although and even if](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/although.md) (B2): How to say although and even if in Dutch: hoewel sends the verb to the end, ook al is followed directly by the verb, and zelfs als works like als.
- [Zodat, opdat, zo ... dat](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/so-that.md) (B2): Zodat expresses purpose or result, opdat formal purpose, and zo plus adjective plus dat degree; after zodat, opdat and dat the verb goes last.
- [Voordat, nadat, terwijl, sinds, totdat, zodra](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/time-conjunctions.md) (B1): Voordat, nadat, terwijl, sinds, totdat and zodra link events in time and send the verb to the end of their clause: learn what each one means.
- [Reporting what someone said](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/reported-speech.md) (B2): Reported speech in Dutch: dat for statements, of or a question word for questions, verb last, and pronouns, time and tense seen from your point of view.
- [Leaving words out in spoken Dutch](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/dropping-words.md) (C1): In casual spoken Dutch you can drop a first dat or het (Weet ik niet, Kan wel) and give short answers by repeating the verb: Ja, heb ik.

## Adjectives and adverbs

Endings, comparing, and saying how things are done.

- [Adjective endings: when to add -e](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/adjective-endings.md) (A1): Before a noun, a Dutch adjective usually gets -e (de grote stad), except before a singular het-word after een, geen or similar words (een groot huis).
- [Spelling changes when an adjective gets -e](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/adjective-spelling.md) (A2): When a Dutch adjective gets -e, the spelling can change: groot becomes grote, dik becomes dikke, lief becomes lieve, and open stays open.
- [Adjectives after zijn, worden and blijven](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/adjective-after-verb.md) (A1): After zijn, worden and blijven a Dutch adjective takes no -e (het huis is groot); the -e belongs before a noun, as in het grote huis.
- [Adjectives that never take -e](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/adjectives-without-e.md) (B1): Dutch adjectives ending in unstressed -en (houten, open, eigen) and some loanwords (prima, gratis, oranje) never take -e before a noun.
- [Comparatives: groter, mooier, duurder](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/comparatives.md) (A2): Add -er to compare in Dutch, or -der after r (groter, duurder), then use dan for a difference and net zo ... als or even ... als for equal things.
- [Superlatives: de grootste, het grootst](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/superlatives.md) (A2): Make Dutch superlatives with -st: de grootste stad before a noun, het grootst after a verb, and vies becomes viest.
- [Goed, beter, best and other irregulars](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/irregular-comparison.md) (A2): Dutch compares four very common words irregularly: goed, beter, best; veel, meer, meest; weinig, minder, minst; graag, liever, liefst.
- [Meer and meest instead of -er and -st](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/meer-meest.md) (B1): Dutch uses meer and meest with past participles and to compare two qualities; most other adjectives, even long ones, take -er and -st.
- [Adverbs: no -ly needed](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/adverbs-no-ly.md) (A2): Dutch adverbs need no -ly: to say how something happens, use the plain adjective with no ending, as in Ze zingt mooi or Hij rijdt snel.
- [Graag: the Dutch way to say you like doing something](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/graag.md) (A1): Put graag after a verb to say you like doing something (Ik zwem graag); use liever for prefer, het liefst for like most, plus ja, graag and graag gedaan.
- [Heel, erg, echt, best, nogal, vrij](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/intensifiers.md) (A2): Heel and erg mean very, echt means really, best means quite (not best), and nogal and vrij mean rather or fairly.
- [Altijd, vaak, soms, nooit](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/frequency-adverbs.md) (A1): Altijd, meestal, vaak, soms, zelden and nooit say how often, usually come after the conjugated verb, and nooit needs no extra niet.
- [Iets leuks, niets nieuws: the extra -s](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/iets-leuks.md) (B1): After iets, niets, veel, weinig, wat and genoeg, an adjective without a noun takes -s (iets leuks, niets nieuws), unless it already ends in -s.
- [Dan, als and zo ... als](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/comparing-dan-als.md) (A2): Dutch uses dan after a comparative (groter dan), zo ... als or even ... als for "as ... as", and anders dan for "different from".
- [Adjectives used as nouns](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/adjectives-as-nouns.md) (B1): Dutch uses an adjective with -e as a noun: de oude (the old one), de rijken (rich people), het mooie is dat ... (the nice thing is that ...).
- [Ander, andere and anders](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/ander-anders.md) (B1): Ander and andere mean other and take adjective endings; anders means differently, otherwise or else, as in iets anders (something else).
- [Heel, al and alle: whole and all](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/heel-al-alle.md) (B2): Dutch says de hele dag and heel Nederland for whole, alle before plurals, al before het or mijn, and allemaal after the verb.
- [Veel, weinig, een paar, een beetje](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/quantities.md) (A2): Use veel and weinig with plurals and uncountable nouns, een paar for a few (or a pair), een beetje for a little, and genoeg before or after the noun.

## Small words

Prepositions, time, numbers and the particles that make Dutch sound Dutch.

- [In, op, aan, bij: where things are](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/place-prepositions.md) (A1): Dutch uses in for inside, op for surfaces and fixed places, aan for things hanging on a wall, and bij for near or at someone's place.
- [Naar, uit, door, langs, over](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/movement-prepositions.md) (A2): Dutch words for movement: naar means to, uit out of or from, door through, langs along or past, over across or about, and van ... naar from ... to.
- [Om, op, in: talking about time](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/time-prepositions.md) (A1): Dutch uses om for clock times, op for days and dates, in for months, seasons and years, plus 's avonds for parts of the day and van ... tot.
- [Telling the time: half drie means 2:30](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/telling-time.md) (A1): Tell the time in Dutch: het is drie uur, half drie is 2:30, kwart over and kwart voor, vijf voor half drie, and the 24-hour clock.
- [Numbers: eenentwintig, not twenty-one](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/numbers.md) (A1): From 21, Dutch says the unit before the ten with en (eenentwintig, vijfendertig), and ordinals end in -de or -ste (derde, twintigste).
- [Days, months and dates](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/days-months-dates.md) (A1): Dutch writes days and months in lowercase, uses op for a day or date (op 3 april) and says years like 1990 as negentienhonderdnegentig.
- [Al, nog, pas, nog niet, niet meer](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/al-nog-pas.md) (A2): Al means already, nog means still, nog niet means not yet, niet meer means no longer, and pas means only just or not until.
- [Geleden, sinds, al and over](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/ago-since-in.md) (A2): Geleden means ago, sinds means since, over means in (future), and Dutch uses the present with al for things still true: Ik woon hier al twee jaar.
- [Even, maar, eens: making requests friendly](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/softening-particles.md) (A2): Use even, maar and eens to soften Dutch requests: even makes them quick, maar gives permission, eens invites someone to try.
- [Toch, wel, hoor, nou, gewoon](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/toch-wel-hoor-nou.md) (B1): Toch means right? or anyway, wel contrasts with niet, hoor reassures, nou means well or come on, and gewoon means just: Dutch tone words explained.
- [Particle combinations: maar even, toch maar, nou eens](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/particle-clusters.md) (B2): Dutch particles like maar even, toch maar and nou eens stack in a set order and show the speaker's attitude: friendly, giving in, or impatient.
- [Ja, nee, jawel and toch wel](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/answering-jawel.md) (A2): Use nee to agree with a negative question in Dutch, and jawel or toch wel to contradict it, just like French si and German doch.
- [Ook, alleen, maar, zelfs: focus words](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/focus-words.md) (B1): Ook (also), alleen (only), maar (only, before amounts) and zelfs (even) usually stand right before the part of the sentence they focus on.
- [Adjectives with a fixed preposition](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/adjective-prepositions.md) (B1): Dutch adjectives like trots op, bang voor and blij met take a fixed preposition, often not the English one; before a clause you usually add er.
- [Met de trein, op de fiets, te voet](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/transport-prepositions.md) (A2): Dutch uses met for transport (met de trein, met de bus), op de fiets when you ride a bike, and te voet or lopend for going on foot.
- [Ten, ter and te in fixed phrases](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/te-ten-ter.md) (C1): Ten, ter and te in phrases like ten eerste, ter plaatse and te koop are fossils of old Dutch cases: learn them as chunks for formal texts and signs.
- [Fixed prepositional phrases](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/prepositional-phrases.md) (B2): Dutch phrases like op tijd, in de war and aan de hand have a fixed preposition that often differs from English, so learn each one as a whole chunk.

## Style and register

Formal and informal Dutch, writing well, and the last mile to sounding natural.

- [Formal and informal Dutch](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/formal-informal.md) (B2): Formal Dutch uses u, a few stiff letter words like gaarne and plain sentences; informal Dutch uses jij and shortcuts like 't, 'k and m'n.
- [Writing an email in Dutch: openings and closings](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/emails-and-letters.md) (B1): Start Dutch emails with Hoi, Beste or Geachte, end with Groetjes, Groet or Met vriendelijke groet, and give your reason for writing in the first line.
- [Spoken shortcuts: 't, 'k, m'n, z'n, d'r](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/spoken-contractions.md) (B1): 't, 'k, m'n, z'n and d'r are spoken short forms of het, ik, mijn, zijn and haar or er: fine in chats, best avoided in formal Dutch writing.
- [Nominalisation: turning actions into nouns](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/nominalisation.md) (C1): Nominalisation turns actions into nouns like het verhogen or de verhoging: why official Dutch loves it, and why a verb is usually clearer.
- [When to use the passive, and when not](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/choosing-the-passive.md) (B2): Use the Dutch passive when the doer is unknown, obvious or unimportant; if it is you or your reader, an active sentence with we, je or u is friendlier.
- [Building words with prefixes: on-, her-, mis-, oud-](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/prefixes.md) (B2): Dutch prefixes on-, her-, mis- and oud- add the meanings not, again, wrongly and former, and knowing them helps you guess new words.
- [Building words with suffixes: -baar, -loos, -achtig, -ig, -lijk](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/suffixes.md) (B2): Dutch -baar usually means can be done, -loos means without, -achtig means like or -ish, and -ig and -lijk turn words into adjectives.
- [Linking ideas in writing: bovendien, echter, kortom](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/linking-ideas.md) (B2): Add with bovendien and daarnaast, contrast with echter and daarentegen, conclude with kortom and al met al, and list with ten eerste and ten slotte.
- [If only: Als ik het had geweten](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/unreal-past.md) (B2): Unreal past in Dutch: als plus had or was plus participle, then zou ik gekomen zijn or simply was ik gekomen. Both are correct and common.
- [Conditions without als: Mocht je vragen hebben](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/conditionals-without-als.md) (C1): Make conditions without als by putting the verb first, as in Had ik het geweten, and use mocht for a polite formal if: Mocht u vragen hebben.
- [Wishes with maar: Was het maar vrijdag](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/wishes-with-maar.md) (B2): Wishes put a past verb first plus maar (Was het maar vrijdag), while als ... maar with a present verb can mean as long as (Als je maar op tijd bent).
- [Wiens, wier, hetgeen: formal relatives](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/formal-relatives.md) (C1): Formal Dutch says wiens (masculine or neuter owner) or wier (feminine or plural) for whose, speech says van wie, and hetgeen is formal for wat.
- [Dutch in the Netherlands and in Flanders](https://www.dutchfluency.com/grammar/dutch-and-flemish.md) (B2): Dutch in the Netherlands and Flanders is one language; learn to recognise the Flemish ge and gij, the -ke diminutive, ze for things and words like amai.